A common approach towards enhancing managerial effectiveness is to focus attention on improving the knowledge and skill of the manager, i.e. training. This approach assumes that the main barrier to effectiveness is some deficiency in the individual. A quick and simple approach to diagnosing...

Presents the theory of learned helplessness as a framework for diagnosing problems and planning remedial action in organizations. Discusses the elements of a successful change strategy and focuses attention on interventions designed to disconfirm expectations of on‐contingency between response...