In this paper we criticise the use of general perceptions of corruption as indicators for actual corruption. We show that citizens' perceptions of corruption are embedded in general attitudes towards government, and that, therefore, these subjective indicators may be merely measuring the...

Informal payments are quite common in public services in many – especially developing countries to facilitate access to and quality of services. Health care is one sector where informal payments are often used. Patients give doctors, nurses and hospital staff gifts or money, or offer services...

Throughout the 1990s, corruption cases, policy failure and scandals tarnished Belgium's international reputation. In this article, we analyze the effect of federalism and political culture on corruption and policy failures and their impact on the likelihood of such occurrences becoming scandals....