Germany is facing a security policy Zeitenwende whose industrial dimension has not yet been sufficiently addressed. The war in Ukraine, rising military threats in Europe, and the long-term underfunding of the German Armed Forces have exposed the limits of existing defence industrial capacity,...

US defence policy is characterised by contradictions that are on display once again in the Trump administration’s latest strategy documents. The reasons for this go far beyond the president’s erratic behaviour. At the core lies the unanswered question of how the United States should deal...

The start of the second millennium brought a growing sense that capitalism was becoming more ‘authoritarian’ and ‘illiberal’, with various indicators suggesting that ‘democracy’ is waning around the globe, that the protection of human and civil rights is in retreat and that the...

The member states of the European Union are once again arguing about money. More specifically, they are arguing about how much they want to spend on defence, where this money should come from and whether they should spend it jointly. That Europe needs to defend itself better is not in dispute in...

European security is in danger. Despite some successes, overall progress in strengthening defences has been slow. Europeans still face critical shortfalls in areas such as long-range strike, air defence, intelligence and surveillance. Without more coordination, Europeans will waste much of their...

European security is in danger. Despite some successes, overall progress in strengthening defences has been slow. Europeans still face critical shortfalls in areas such as long-range strike, air defence, intelligence and surveillance. Without more coordination, Europeans will waste much of their...

The rapidly deteriorating global security environment has pushed EU institutions and Member States to call for further consolidation of the European defence industrial base, with the European Commission taking a proactive stance in promoting a stronger, more integrated, and competitive defence...

In 2024, total defence expenditure by the 27 EU Member States reached €343 billion, marking a 19% increase from 2023, bringing defence expenditure to 1.9% of GDP. Estimated data suggests that Member States may reach beyond the 2% NATO guideline in 2025, to €392 billion (current prices,...

In 2024, total defence expenditure by the 27 EU Member States reached €343 billion, marking a 19% increase from 2023, bringing defence expenditure to 1.9% of GDP. Estimated data suggests that Member States may reach beyond the 2% NATO guideline in 2025, to €392 billion (current prices,...

The combination of Russia's war against Ukraine and the declining US engagement in Europe have resulted in increased strategic convergence between Europeanist and Atlanticist states. For the time being, the primary goal is to strengthen NATO's "European pillar." To do so, member states will also...

Research & development (R&D) subsidies, especially defense R&D spending, raise private R&D investment (a crowd-in effect). Public R&D funding increases employment without driving up wages. Supported industries see gains in productivity. International spillovers amplify the impact across...

This paper investigates the expansion of EU military activities, involving the European Commission, other EU-related institutions and Member States. Expenditure on EU military programmes - defence-related R&D, arms production, joint procurement, military mobility, and the supply of lethal...

This report updates and expands the data-driven work of our initial study from September 2024, which concluded that Europe would only be fit for war in several decades. We show that the situation today is even more concerning if Europe aims to be fit for war by 2030. First, Russia continues to...

Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine marked the start of a prolonged confrontation between Moscow and Europe - one that is fundamentally reshaping the parameters of European security. The return of Donald Trump to the White House and his stated intent to quickly end the war in Ukraine and put...

Various options are being discussed to increase Germany's defense capabilities. Increasing the size of the Bundeswehr is proving difficult, and compulsory military service hardly seems feasible for economic and socio-political reasons. A European army and technological alternatives such as...

Europe must take more responsibility for its defence, if necessary without the United States, given Washington’s volatility. In March 2025, the European Union (EU) launched a series of initiatives to strengthen defence industry and defence policy cooperation. With these new instruments also...

Peace does not rest on the goodwill of others but on our capacity to defend ourselves and deter threats. The full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022 shattered whatever i l lus ions rema ined about Europe's immediate environment. Russia is intent on causing maximum harm to Ukrainians while running...

Peace does not rest on the goodwill of others but on our capacity to defend ourselves and deter threats. The full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022 shattered whatever i l lus ions rema ined about Europe's immediate environment. Russia is intent on causing maximum harm to Ukrainians while running...

The relationship between the United States government, private foundations, and university-based researchers working on peace and security policy has evolved over time. Since the end of World War II we can identify four main phases: (1) secret government funding into the 1960s; (2) a Golden Age...

Europe needs to take more responsibility for its own security. While EU Member States have made substantial new resources available for European defence, and European defence companies are thriving, more needs to be done. National defence spending will likely continue to rise but there is also...

Europe needs to take more responsibility for its own security. While EU Member States have made substantial new resources available for European defence, and European defence companies are thriving, more needs to be done. National defence spending will likely continue to rise but there is also...

Since Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022, a process of securitisation of the European Union's (EU) external action can be observed. From an institutional perspective, the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) increasingly overlaps with the Common Security and Defence...

We consider a dynamic setting where two countries with competing claims to a resource/asset first arm and then choose whether to resolve their dispute through war or peacefully through settlement. War precludes international trade and can be destructive, but also locks gains and eliminates...

When considering the benefits of a strong United States military, it is natural to think of the military's crucial role in protecting Americans from foreign adversaries and providing security and stability around the world. But safeguarding America's interests at home and abroad offers the...

The pursuit of strategic autonomy has been a key driver in shaping Türkiye's defense policy, with a focus on reducing dependence on others through the advancement of its domestic military capabilities. While benefiting from NATO membership and access to global technologies, Türkiye has...

Canada and other members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) are facing higher defence-spending targets in response to growing geopolitical tensions. NATO's 2025 Hague Summit Declaration requires member states to increase their defence spending to five percent of their GDP by 2035....

As the war in Ukraine grinds into its third winter, Kyiv and its partners face a test of their resolve, preparedness, and commitment to European security. Russia's deployment of the Oreshnik, a ballistic missile capable of carrying nuclear warheads, appears calculated to stoke fear.

Russia's illegal invasion of Ukraine has brought war back to Europe. Failing to stop Russia's aggression would leave Europe at a critical disadvantage for decades, with a long-term threat to peace in the European Union. The EU can no longer rely on United States leadership in NATO and European...

2023 witnessed a sharp increase in total defence expenditure, with a total amount of €279 billion being spent by European Union Member States (MS), which corresponds to 1.6% of MS Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The development and procurement of new weapons systems was the primary factor...

2023 witnessed a sharp increase in total defence expenditure, with a total amount of €279 billion being spent by European Union Member States (MS), which corresponds to 1.6% of MS Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The development and procurement of new weapons systems was the primary factor...

As the war in Ukraine grinds into its third winter, Kyiv and its partners face a test of their resolve, preparedness, and commitment to European security. Russia's deployment of the Oreshnik, a ballistic missile capable of carrying nuclear warheads, appears calculated to stoke fear.

War is back in Europe and as it becomes long-lasting, the question of armament gains central importance. This report finds that Russian military industrial capacities have been rising strongly in the last two years, well beyond the levels of Russian material losses in Ukraine. Meanwhile, the...

Using a perspective external to the Swedish Armed Forces this study examine the Swedish management of capability and technology development focusing on defence equipment. The study analyses a value chain that identifies activities from strategy definition to delivered capability in the case of...

Mattingly (2024) investigates how authoritarian leaders select military generals, focusing on the People's Liberation Army of China. Three main findings emerge. First, in general, Chinese leaders consider both personal ties (as a proxy for loyalty to the leader) and combat experience (as a proxy...