- Executive Summary
- Introduction
- I. Origins of the burden of proof provisions
- II. European law on equal treatment and non-discrimination
- II.1. The gender equality provisions
- II.2. The Equal Treatment and Non-discrimination Directives
- III. Previous studies on the burden of proof
- IV. Recent judgments of the CJEU relevant to the burden of proof
- V. Theoretical underpinnings and general considerations
- V.1. General note
- V.2. Discovery of facts: evidence
- V.3. The form of discrimination to be proven
- V.4. Conduct
- V.5. Harm
- V.6. Protected ground
- V.7. Comparators
- V.8. Bias, causation, negligence and intent
- V.9. Prima facie cases: the point of (no) return
- V.10. Justification defence
- V.11. Rebuttal
- V.12. Procedural scheme
- VI. Implementation in Member States
- VI.1. General trends and patterns
- VI.2. Application of the burden of proof rules in practice
- VII. Practical concerns relating to the burden of proof rules
- VII.1. Right to information
- VII.2. Establishing a comparator
- VII.3. The prima facie case
- VII.4. Potentially different standards according to the protected ground
- VII.5. Justification and rebuttal
- VII.6. Different outcomes according to the legal forum used
- VII.7. Different outcomes according to whether the litigant is an individual or an NGO
- VIII. Possible improvements to the implementation of the burden of proof provisions
- Conclusions
- Bibliography
- Table of legislation
- List of cases
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